Effective educational uses of the Internet require that teachers and students first learn basic Internet skills. This chapter describes how adults learn to use the Internet and offers guidelines for instruction.

Teaching and Learning Internet Skills

Recently, an older colleague told me he was finally convinced that all the hype surrounding the Internet is true. "I've started getting e-mail from my mother," he said, unable to conceal his incredulity. "If my mother is on the Internet, everybody is going to be on the Internet."

The explosive growth of the Internet is evidence of an extraordinary adult learning phenomenon that cuts across traditional demographic lines. Unlike most of the chapters in this volume, this one does not discuss the Internet as a medium for learning and teaching, but instead focuses on how adults learn to participate in this phenomenon, whether on their own, at work, or through continuing education.

Surveys of Internet usage are subject to a certain amount of methodological controversy (Hoffman, Kalsbeek, and Novak, 1996), but some trends are clear. According to researchers conducting World Wide Web user surveys at Georgia Tech, thirty-six million people in the United States were on the Internet in November, 1997 (Graphics, Visualization, and Usability Center, 1997). Since the user surveys began in 1994, the average age of respondents has steadily increased; in the most recent survey it was thirty-five. About 37 percent of respondents were novices who had been on-line less than one year. Among females, the percentage of novices was 43 percent, while among users older than fifty, 53 percent had gone on-line for the first time within the last twelve months.

Two inferences can be drawn from these and other survey data. First, as it grows, the population of the Internet is becoming increasingly diverse and more consistent with the characteristics of the general population. Once the private domain of a small number of researchers and academics, the Internet has become a true mass medium. Second, this continuous growth means that a large proportion of Internet users are novices. Over the course of the next decade, as Internet technologies achieve a ubiquity comparable to that of the telephone and television, the absolute number of new users will steadily increase--and with it the demand for new resources for teaching and learning Internet skills. This new audience is already creating opportunities and challenges for adult educators, many of whom are learning to use the Internet themselves at the same time they are being asked to provide instruction.

The research literature on general computer skill learning is fairly extensive (Cahoon, 1995; Gattiker, 1992), and has produced some valuable instructional design strategies (Carroll, 1990). In comparison, research about how people learn to use the Internet is still rare. This chapter draws on research in computer and Internet skill learning as well as on interviews with computer workshop instructors and participants to present an overview of the cognitive and social factors that influence the development of Internet skills. This provides the context for a discussion of a successful noncredit short course, "Exploring the Internet," offered by the University of Georgia Center for Continuing Education since 1994. In addition to providing a possible model for other providers of Internet instruction, this example illustrates the techniques used by an expert computer instructor to achieve a balance between hands-on laboratory exercises and verbal presentation of concepts and principles.

Overview of Internet Skills

Basic personal computer skills are prerequisite to using the Internet, though in practice these skills are often acquired together, as the popularity of the Internet motivates many adults to use computers for the first time. Motor skills (learning to use a keyboard, learning to manipulate a mouse) and perceptual skills (learning to associate images and events on the computer screen with motor actions) form the most elementary substrate. On this basis, adult learners gradually build the skills required by the now-standard graphical user interface: pointing at and clicking on icons to activate programs; selecting commands from pull-down menus; and opening, closing, moving, resizing, and scrolling windows. Once learned, these skills can be applied to a range of software tasks. Other skills that can be transferred easily from one task to another include the use of the mouse to edit text and the use of menu commands to create, save, and print documents.

Skill learning is strongly correlated with the duration and frequency of practice, while skill transfer from one task to another depends on the presence of common elements between those tasks (Singley and Anderson, 1989). For example, the cut-and-paste operations of word processing depend on the learner's recognition and manipulation of elements such as the pointer, insertion point, scrolling windows, and displayed text; all these elements are also present in e-mail programs, so a learner familiar with word processing can apply the same skills to e-mail tasks immediately.

Having acquired a functional set of skills, computer users tend to rely on them heavily, even when they are aware that they could learn more efficient procedures for achieving the same results (Santhanam and Wiedenbeck, 1993). For example, longtime users of word processing software who learned initially to rely on arrow keys to move the cursor within a document may continue to employ this method even though the same goal could be accomplished more efficiently by using the mouse. In some respects, learners who have already achieved a plateau of computer skill may be more difficult to teach than complete novices.

At one level, Internet skills can be described as the ability to use a variety of Internet client software, particularly Web browsers, e-mail programs, news readers, and FTP (file transfer protocol) clients. A skillful Internet user can be operationally defined as one who is able to send and reply to e-mail, search for and find Web information, download and install software from on-line archives, and participate in Web-based conferences or newsgroups. But successful application of these skills to real-world situations requires conceptual understanding as well as the memorization of step-by-step procedures. Brandt (1997) reflects a consensus among cognitive scientists and software engineers when he describes Internet skill learning in terms of the construction of mental models that allow the learner to reason about problems, predict probable events, and discover solutions.

The Internet is a much larger and more complex problem domain than a personal computer. Novice computer users, who are still coming to grips with the concepts of files and directories and with the skills necessary to store and find information on a disk, are easily overwhelmed by the difficulty of searching for information on the Internet, where response times and other forms of feedback are far less consistent and where an overall hierarchical organization is lacking. The cognitive load of Internet use is increased by the hypertext properties of the World Wide Web. While associative linking can support learning in many ways, its potential for creating disorientation has long been recognized (Conklin, 1987).

Successful mental models of the Internet allow learners to reason about the spatial and temporal distribution of both hardware and humans and the means by which they communicate with each other. Some knowledge of the cultural history of the Internet sheds much light on its technical and social organization (Hafner and Lyon, 1996) and is one of the most obvious differences between experts and novices.

The technical success of the Internet is the result of widespread acceptance of public, freely reproducible software protocols such as TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol). Understanding the complexities of TCP/IP is much less relevant to practical Internet skill than is a basic understanding of client-server computing. All Internet-based communication depends on client software (such as e-mail and Web browser programs) that exchange information with server software on distant computers (such as e-mail and Web servers). This exchange relies on the addressing, routing, and error-correction schemes built into TCP/IP.

By explaining how requests from clients and responses from servers are routed over the Internet, instructors can help learners form realistic expectations and strategies for problem solving. For example, the error messages displayed by a Web browser when it fails to connect to a server can be a source of confusion to novices. A mental model of the Internet that explains how Web clients and servers communicate can support an appropriate response (such as canceling the error message and trying to contact the server again).

Novice users also benefit greatly by acquiring models of the social organization of the Internet. Accustomed to traditional print and broadcast media, in which the flow of information is centrally controlled and one-directional, they tend to find the diversity of the Internet baffling. In time, however, they understand that Internet servers are operated by a variety of people and organizations, each with unique resources and agendas. More experienced users, who have watched the Internet evolve over years or decades, have models of this social structure that help them analyze the relative value of information sources.

Internet users learn skills in response to situational needs. A distinction can be drawn between those who use the Internet primarily at work, relying on e-mail, the Web, and other resources for job-related tasks, and those who use it recreationally with a home computer and an account from an Internet service provider. The two categories often overlap, with home Internet use becoming an increasingly common method of telecommuting, but an important difference is that the home user must learn to do his or her own technical troubleshooting, rather than relying on network support staff. Installing a modem, configuring software, and solving connection problems are nontrivial tasks, especially for novices. Nonetheless, large numbers of people who do not work with networked computers--many of them older adults--are logging on to the Internet as recreational users, often motivated by the desire to use e-mail to communicate with family and friends. Whether at home or at work, the social contexts of Internet use tend to determine what skills novices will learn and how.

Strategies for Learning and Teaching Internet Skills

A flood of newspaper articles, books, and magazines indicates that old-fashioned paper is still a viable tool for learning about the Internet. Many adults, particularly those who use the Internet at home, rely on computer books as their main resource for solving problems. An enormous variety of self-instructional material is also available on the World Wide Web, much of it aimed at novices (for example, Cahoon, 1997). More experienced Internet users often use search engines to scour the Web, Usenet, and mailing list archives for answers to obscure technical questions. However, successful use of such resources presupposes significant prior knowledge.

For those who use Internet tools in an office setting, informal knowledge sharing with coworkers is often more important than any type of formal instruction, whether individualized or instructor-led. Typically, such informal learning experiences involve the identification of specific work group members as local experts, the tacit or explicit negotiation of roles for shared computer work, and one-on-one problem-solving or tutoring sessions (Cahoon, 1995, 1996). This knowledge sharing is especially effective because it can be requested on a just-in-time basis and occurs within a mutually understood context of work goals and resources. Such situated learning involves processes of socialization as well as the mastery of concepts and procedures (Lave and Wenger, 1991). However, it can be costly in the demands placed on the time of local experts, and it may not occur at all within work groups whose culture emphasizes strong distinctions of status and authority. For example, in organizations where all computer tasks are delegated to clerical staff, managers may have few opportunities for informal learning.

Participation in short courses and workshops is an increasingly popular method for novices to develop basic Internet skills in a relatively short period of time. However, such courses seem to vary significantly in their effectiveness. The determinative factor is often not the technical expertise of the instructor but the selection of teaching strategies that combine an emphasis on practical exercises with an opportunistic approach to the verbal presentation of concepts and principles.

"Exploring the Internet"

The course is frequently taught by Darrell Rainey, a graphic designer who works for the university. Like many of the computer instructors who teach for the Georgia Center, Darrell does not have an academic background in computer science or engineering. This is an advantage for him, as the program planners have discovered that teachers with deep technical expertise tend to be less effective in communicating with novices than experienced computer users from other backgrounds. The following description of "Exploring the Internet," its participants, and the activities and teaching strategies that have made it a success is based on interviews with Darrell and observations of his classes.

The course description specifies that experience with basic mouse and keyboard use is required, and in general participants meet this prerequisite, but otherwise they are a diverse group, varying widely in age, prior computer experience, and educational backgrounds. Darrell estimates that as many as half of the participants in recent classes had Internet access at home during the time they were enrolled, something that was rare when the first class was offered. Couples, parents and children, and friends often take the course together. Asked at the beginning of the class to describe their reasons for taking it, many allude to relationships rather than work requirements, citing children or spouses who already use the Internet. Other participants are small-business owners or employees interested in using the Internet for communicating with customers.

The class is taught in five two-hour sessions. Typically Darrell spends one hour of each session teaching Web skills and the other hour working with e-mail, FTP, or newsgroups. One of the most striking characteristics of his teaching style is his avoidance of lecturing. The main exception is the first session, which he begins by introducing himself, surveying the participants about their goals and previous experience, and presenting a brief overview of the history of the Internet and some basic concepts of client-server computing. Within the first half-hour, he has begun to lead the group through hands-on exercises. His subsequent presentation of conceptual material is done almost entirely through responses to questions and especially through his interventions to resolve students' problems.

A typical activity in the first session involves learning to use Netscape Navigator to retrieve a Web page by entering its address. Taking the White House Web site at http://www.whitehouse.gov/ as an example, Darrell demonstrates how to reach the Web site, explaining each step of the procedure as the students observe his actions on the projection screen. He then calls on them to repeat the process themselves. Most students are able to do so, but inevitably several will fail, receiving error messages or other unexpected results.

Where a less experienced computer instructor might view these errors as disruptive of the flow of the class, and either ignore or hurry past them, Darrell uses them as opportunities to demonstrate troubleshooting skills and to present or reinforce conceptual information. Asking the participant to describe the symptoms of the problem to the rest of the group, Darrell identifies its source--in the case of this exercise, often a simple typing error--and explains the often-cryptic error messages. An error reporting a failure to resolve a domain name might lead him to provide a brief explanation of the purpose and format of domain names. Then he suggests steps for recovering from the error (for example, canceling an error message and correcting a mistyped Web address). Darrell's primary goal is to give his students experience in overcoming errors. The effectiveness of this strategy is demonstrated by students' progress in the class and their positive self-assessments in course evaluations.

This focus on error recovery, which has support in the experimental work of Carroll (1990), benefits students in two ways. First, by moving students quickly into hands-on exercises and then using errors as opportunities to explain concepts, Darrell provides a practical context for material that might be confusing or boring if delivered as part of an extended lecture. Computer errors are events that are both memorable and likely to recur; by associating the explanation with the experience of an error, Darrell increases the likelihood that the student will recall both the solution and its rationale under similar circumstances. Second, through his relaxed approach to hardware crashes, software failures, and network outages, Darrell demonstrates that troubleshooting episodes are a normal part of using the Internet and models the attitudes and tactics necessary to resolve them. While this method of instruction is less systematic than detailed, organized lecturing, in practice it allows students to construct and retain more reliable mental models.

Darrell uses similar approaches in teaching his students to use e-mail. During the class, each student has access to a temporary e-mail account. Prior to a class session, Darrell sends brief messages to the students, who read and reply to them during the class. He then randomly distributes index cards on which he has written the students' e-mail addresses and has participants exchange messages with each other. To show the kinds of errors produced by defective e-mail addresses, Darrell deliberately sends mail to a nonexistent account on the local mail server (such as "bogus@georgiacenter.uga.edu"), then to a nonexistent server (such as "bogus@bogus.edu"). Discussion of the different messages produced by these errors deepens students' understanding of the interactions of client and server programs on the Internet.

However, not all concepts are best conveyed through analysis of errors. In some instances, the social consequences of errors make it desirable to avoid them. For example, teaching students about mailing lists requires both a series of activities--in which students subscribe to a list, read mail, and unsubscribe from the list--and a brief lecture about the etiquette of mailing list participation. Darrell urges students to postpone participation in lists until they have read others' messages for some time and have consulted available FAQs (frequently asked question documents). Similarly, Darrell discusses flaming (exchanges of angry or abusive e-mail) and recommends that students wait to mail any particularly heated comments.

At the end of the ten-hour course, most students report that they feel confident in their ability to apply what they have learned and to continue to develop their skills on their own, using the textbook provided in the class as well as information they find on the Web.

Conclusion

Given the certainty of technological change, even experienced Internet users face the need for continuous learning. Adult educators can prepare students for this experience by helping them construct mental models that support experimentation and problem solving. The most durable of these models will emphasize understanding the Internet as a social environment rather than knowledge about computers and cables.

References

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Brad Cahoon is the webmaster at the University of Georgia Center for Continuing Education, Athens.